Ephesus (Efes): Historical and Cultural Overview

Definition

Ephesus was an ancient Greek city, later a major Roman metropolis, located near the modern town of Selçuk, in İzmir Province, western Turkey. Known for its monumental architecture, religious significance, and commercial importance, Ephesus is one of the best-preserved archaeological sites in the Mediterranean and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2015.

Chronological Historical Development

Prehistoric and Early Settlements (Before 10th century BCE)

• The region of Ephesus was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period, with settlements near Çukuriçi Höyük and Ayasuluk Hill.

• Mycenaean presence is evident by the late Bronze Age (~14th century BCE).

Greek Foundation and Archaic Period (c. 10th–6th century BCE)

• - Ephesus was traditionally founded by Ionian Greeks from Athens around the 10th century BCE, likely on or near the older settlements.

• - It became a prominent city in Ionia, known for the Temple of Artemis (Artemision), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

• - The city was ruled by Lydian kings in the 7th century BCE, notably King Croesus, who funded parts of the Artemision.

Persian and Hellenistic Periods (6th–4th century BCE)

• - Conquered by the Achaemenid Persians in the mid-6th century BCE.

• - Regained independence after Alexander the Great’s conquest in 334 BCE.

• - After his death, Ephesus was contested among his successors; it ultimately came under the control of the Seleucid Empire and later the Kingdom of Pergamon.

Roman Imperial Period (133 BCE – 4th century CE)

• - In 133 BCE, the last king of Pergamon bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, making Ephesus part of the Roman province of Asia.

• - Ephesus became one of the largest cities of the Roman Empire, with a population estimated at 250,000–300,000.

• - Key constructions from this period include:

  • - Library of Celsus (completed in 135 CE)

  • - The Great Theatre (capacity of ~25,000)

  • - Temple of Hadrian, State Agora, and Terrace Houses

  • - Renovations of the Temple of Artemis

• - Ephesus was a major commercial port, though its harbor gradually silted up over time.

Early Christianity and Byzantine Period (4th–11th century CE)

• Ephesus played a major role in early Christian history:

  • - The Apostle Paul preached and lived in Ephesus (Acts 19).

  • - John the Apostle is believed to have lived and died here.

  • - The Council of Ephesus (431 CE), one of the early Ecumenical Councils, was held in the Church of Mary, affirming the title of Theotokos (God-bearer) for the Virgin Mary.

• - A major Byzantine religious center, but the city began to decline due to Arab raids, earthquakes, and harbor silting.

Seljuk and Ottoman Period (11th–20th century)

• - Came under Seljuk Turkish control in the 11th century and later fully integrated into the Ottoman Empire.

• - The city was eventually abandoned, and the population moved to the nearby hill settlement of Ayasuluk (modern Selçuk).

• - The Isa Bey Mosque (1375), built by the Aydınid Emirate, reflects the transition to Islamic architecture.

Modern Era and Archaeological Significance (19th century–Present)

• - Systematic excavations began in the late 19th century, led by Austrian and later Turkish archaeologists.

• - Ephesus is now a major archaeological and tourist site, drawing millions of visitors annually.

• - Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015, encompassing Ephesus, the Cave of the Seven Sleepers, House of the Virgin Mary, and Ayasuluk Hill.

Cultural and Religious Significance

• - Temple of Artemis: Once one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, only foundations remain today.

• - Christian Pilgrimage Site: Associated with St. Paul, St. John, and the Virgin Mary.

• - House of the Virgin Mary: A site of religious reverence visited by Popes and pilgrims, believed to be the last residence of Mary.

• - Architectural Legacy: Roman public buildings, mosaics, and sculptures reflect Ephesus’s urban sophistication.

• - Literary and Biblical Mentions: Referenced in the New Testament, particularly in the Epistle to the Ephesians.